The Four Horsemen and After

THE FOUR HORSEMEN AND AFTER

byFrances Roper
In collaboration with F. A. Stamp

8 Stoke Abbott Court
Worthing.
(Approximately 8,000 Words),

In every human heart there is implanted an inborn longing for the knowledge of Truth. No human brain can compass the whole Truth, which is God, but each one can comprehend that facet of the truth which is revealed to each individual by faith in Christ. It is not necessary that every follower of Christ should see eye to eye on every point of belief, for each facet of a diamond reflects a different ray, but the Light from which those rays emanates is, and must be, the same, or there is no Truth.We, the joint authors, have arrived through a course of intensive study extending over the past five years, at our concep­tion of the truth concerning these present times of distress and bewilderment. We believe that the clue is contained in the Book of Revelation, from chapter 4 onwards, and we feel that the time has now come for us to offer our findings for the consideration and judgement of fellow-seekers. We do not expect a very sympathetic reception, and are fully prepared for much adverse criticism, but we feel that, having been guided to this conception of the truth, it is our duty to lay it before others, in the hopes that it may at least open new vistas of search.Before commencing our discussion, we would like to make a brief apologia for our temerity in attempting as ambitious a task as an exposition of the Book of Revelation. One of us, the amanuensis, has a background of strict Church orthodoxy, and a brain so impregnated with traditions of the elders that many years of mental turmoil have been endured before accepting the fact that Church doctrines and theology are not synonymous with the pure teaching of the Bible. The other has had no Christian teaching whatever, apart from Scripture lessons at school, and has therefore been able to approach the Bible – a hitherto almost entirely unknown book – with a mature and unbiased mind.There are several schools of thought with regard to the Book of Revelation, the chief of which are the Pretorist, the Historical, and the Futurist. The Pretorist school maintains that all the events recorded in Revelation related to happenings .in the early Church, in a period now long since completed. The Historical school maintains that the events relate possibly to that same period, but more probably to events which took place during the Middle Ages down to, and including the Reformation; and that, therefore, a great part of the Book must be taken as purely allegorical. The Futurist school believes that Book covers both the preceding periods, but that the literal fulfilment of the prophecies is only now beginning to take place, and that the ultimate consummation extends far into the future.There is truth in the tenets of each of these schools of thought, for the Revelation of the Truth of God is so vast that it includes every aspect of human affairs; but the theologians and adherents of the various schools err sadly in limiting the revelation of God to the narrow confines of their individual doctrines. St. Peter tells us (2 St. Peter.ch. I. v. 20) that no prophecy of Scripture is of private interpretation. The Greek word translated “private” means individually as regards the interpreter, i.e., that no human being has the authority to say that this or that prophecy refers solely to this or that definite event. The prophecies were given as pointers and indicators of God’s plans, fully recognisable only in retrospect, and – to those who have eyes to see – while they are in process of fulfilment. They are the clue, the unbreakable thread, which leads true believers through the mazes of past history, the bewilderments of the present, and which will ultimately lead to the Throne of God.All the prophecies relating to the Life of Christ on earth were fulfilled so literally as to be obvious and unmistakable. One or two examples may be given out of many. The Virgin Birth was foretold by Isaiah about seven and a half centuries before Christ was born.(Isaiah. Ch. 7. V. 14). Christ’s ride into Jerusalem upon the ass was foretold by Zechariah nearly five centuries previously. (Zech. Ch. 9. V. 14.). Details of the Crucifixion were prophetically described by David about a thousand years before the event (Psalm 22). The opening words of this Psalm were used by Christ upon the Cross.Numberless other examples might be given relating to the Life of Christ, the fate of the Hebrew race, and to the rise and fall of Empires of the past. Many of the latter are described under the figures of animals etc., but all are clearly recognisable in retrospect.Almost all the prophecies in the Bible have by now been literally and unmistakably fulfilled, and the fact that so few now remain unfulfilled is yet another indication that we are living in the latter days.There is yet another school of thought regarding the Book of Revelation. The adherents of this school maintain that the book is written in a cipher, the key to which is lost, but that when the right time comes for the true reading of the book, the key will be rediscovered and the meaning made plain. Be that as it may, the Book of Revelation has always been considered as a huge vista of swirling shapes, shrouded in allegory and mystery. To many readers it is largely a series of beautiful words and poetic pictures, but without any hint of literal meaning.We believe that the Book of Revelation will be found to be as explicit and literal in its meaning as any of the well-known and understood prophecies, whose fulfilment has already been accomplished. No prophecy can be fully understood until its fulfilment has taken place, but, to those who have eyes to see, the fulfilment of the earlier part of the book is now in process of accomplishment, and out of the vast clouds of incomprehensibility forms and facts are condensing into recognisable shape.The first three chapters of Revelation record St. John’s vision of Christ in Glory, and the letters to the seven Churches. The fourth chapter describes the door opened in Heaven and the call to St. John to come up and be shown the things which must come to pass hereafter (Ch. 4. V. 1). This gives the keynote of prophecy to all the subsequent chapters of the book, and by so doing declares that everything therein recorded is neither mystical nor allegorical, but capable of as literal fulfilment as all the earlier prophecies of the Bible.The fifth chapter describes the Book, close sealed with seven seals. The Greek word for “book” indicates a papyrus scroll, which was written upon both sides. No one in all Heaven was found worthy to break the seals and open the scroll, save only the Lion of the House of Judah Who is also the Lamb that has been slain.Chapter six commences with the opening of the first seal, and the beginning of the prophecy. “And I saw and behold a white horse, and he that sat thereon had a bow; and there was given unto him a crown; and he came forth conquering and to conquer.”The colour of the horse indicates that whatever is represented is intrinsically good, as white, in Scripture, in always the colour of holiness. The bow is indicative of speed and strength, and the crown of honour and power. But the rider led forth a company of horror in his wake, as shown by the three other horsemen that followed him. What can we find in the world that will adequately meet all these indications? Surely Science, and the vast increase of man's discoveries arising therefrom.Science is fundamentally nothing more than man’s attempt to understand the Works of God, though few scientists would admit it. Any branch of Science, approached with humility and wonder and a sense of the power of God, can but lead the student closer and closer to the awe-inspiring comprehension of the fullness of perfection which is God. The deeper that the human brain can vastness probe into the profundities of science – whether it be the vastness of the universe or the minuteness of the structure of the atom, whether into the complexities of Radar research or the mazes of Organic Chemistry – the more the believer is staggered at the immensity of the perfection of the works of God; for God made all things good.Science has given mankind speed and strength to a degree never before known in the world’s history. The era of Science opened rather over a century ago, and since then speed and strength have ruled mankind to an ever-increasing extent. The indications of the Bow are fully revealed.Science, in all its ramifications, rules the world today, and in very truth wears the crown of honour and power. In the minds of a vast number of mankind Science has usurped the honour and reverence which rightly belong to God.Science, though intrinsically good, has led into the world untold miseries, even as the conqueror on the White Horse led in the ghastly riders that followed him.The opening of the Second Seal reveals “a red horse; and to him that sat thereon it was given to take peace from the earth, and that they should slay one another; and there was given him a great sword.”Ever since the beginning of human records there have been wars and fightings, but this horse follows the white leader, so obviously it indicates something other than the war and blood­ shed which have always been part of man’s history. If the white horse be understood to represent modern Science, the red horse must indicate something arising out of science which intensifies the horrors of warfare to an unprecedented degree. The rider on the red horse was given a great sword, and the sword is always indicative of war. The armaments of modern warfare are a direct outcome of science, bombs of all sorts, including the atomic and the hydrogen bomb, aeroplanes, submarines, tanks and all the hideous panoply with which the world is all too familiar, all these are the result of man's misuse of the knowledge of Science.The rider on the red horse may truly be taken to indicate all that is included in the word ‘Armaments’.At the opening of the Third Seal was seen “a black horse, and he that sat thereon had a balance in his hand. And I heard a voice. . . saying, ‘A measure of wheat for a penny, and three measures of barley for a penny, and the oil and the wine hurt thou not’.”The phenomenon represented by the third horse also follows in the train of Science and Modern Knowledge. The Balance indicates something connected with trade and barter, or what is known in these days by Finance. The black colour of the horse shows that it is wholly evil, and this horse and its rider may well by translated as the system of International Finance, the “Hidden Hand” that is the source of such incalculable wickedness in the world today.The reference to the fixed prices of wheat and barley – essential commodities – is recognisable in the acute shortage of staple foodstuffs in the present age, while the luxuries of life, represented by the oil and the wine, are unlimited for those who can afford them.The opening of the Fourth Seal released “a pale horse, and he that sat upon him his name was Death, and Hades followed with him. And there was given unto them authority over the fourth part of the earth, to kill with sword, with famine, and with death, and by the wild beasts of the earth.”The Greek word translated as “pale” means literally “green”, the sickly, livid colour of a corpse. The Greek word translated as “death” in the phrase “to kill with. . . death/”, may better be translated as “pestilence”, that is, anything that causes death, or places the victim under sentence of death. The rider, whose name was Death, is in the Greek ó θxvxtos, the Bringer of death, and Hades, the nether world, loomed behind him. Their authority was to slay by violent and unnatural means, thus proving that the rider of the livid horse is not to be confused with the peaceful departure of the natural death of the Christian, but represents violent death accompanied by suffering and fear, and leading to the horrors of Hades. It is part of the judgement that is to fall upon those who reject Christ.The opening of the Fifth Seal revealed the souls of the Martyrs who have died for the sake of the Word of God and for the testimony which they held. Their place of waiting is one of high honour, under the very Altar of God. They cry to God for vengeance for their blood upon those who dwell on the earth. To them are given white robes, and the word that they should rest yet for a little time, until their fellow-servants also, and their brethren, which should be killed even as they were, should have fulfilled their course.This is the period in which we are living today ­– the Period of the Fifth Seal. It cannot be too strongly emphasised that these Periods of the Seals are concurrent, though, owing to the limitations of human language, they must of necessity be described seriatim. The Periods of the Seals commence one after the other, but continue concurrently. The Period of the Fifth Seal may be recognised by the persecution of the Churches behind the Iron Curtain, of which only the slightest information ever leaks through to the Western world.It is during this period that the process of Sealing at the Servants of God upon their foreheads, takes place. This is deduced from Chapter 7. Vs. 1-4 where it is stated that the Four Angels to whom it is given to hurt the earth and the sea, are ordered to hold their hands until the sealing is completed. As soon as that is finished, the terrors described in Ch. 6. Vs. 12­-13 at the opening of the Sixth Seal will commence, and Christ will appear in the air to take His followers up. The Period of the Sixth Seal may already have commenced, for earthquakes have been noticeably on the increase during the past year or two, and ­the recent reports of falls of mysterious blocks of ice may possibly be the forerunners of the approach of a comet, which will be the physical cause of the shattering world phenomena described in Ch. 6. Vs. 12-17.The number of those that are to be sealed is 144,000, and they are all descendants of Israel. Accepting the belief that the Anglo-Saxon and allied races are descendants of the so-called ‘Lost Tribes’, it follows that all these persons are to found among the British and American peoples, and those nations racially allied to them, and among those of the Jewish race who are of pure stock.This band of 144,000 would appear to be the Administrative Staff who will return on earth when Christ comes to reign for the thousand years. This is deduced from Ch. 14. V.1, where it is stated that the Lamb was seen standing on Mount Zion and with Him 144,000, having His Name and the Name of His Father, written on their foreheads. This is the event referred to in Zechariah Ch. 14, V. 4. when Christ returns in visible form to reign as King.The terrors of the Sixth Seal, i.e., the earthquake, the darkening of the sun, the blood-coloured appearance of the moon, and the stars falling from heaven. correspond unmistakeably with phenomena known to have been caused on the earth in early times by the close approach of a comet or some other sidereal body.In the midst of this horrific upheaval Christ will appear and take all believers out and away from danger.It is strange how seldom any reference is made in the teachings and writings of modern authorities to this tremendous event. All too often it is glossed over and explained away by saying that it is to be taken in a spiritual sense, or that Christ has already come into the hearts of His followers on earth – anything rather than accept it as a literal fact. True, the Holy Spirit is working on earth in the hearts of believers. even as Christ said He would; but Christ states clearly that: “then shall all the tribes of the earth mourn, and they shall see the Son of Man coming in the clouds of Heaven”. Nothing could be plainer or clearer than this. St. Paul also informs us about this event, prefacing his statements with the words “For this we say unto you by the word of the Lord”, thus obviating any idea that it might be merely his own interpretation of Christ’s teaching. (1 Thess. Ch. 4. Vs. 15-17). Again in Acts Ch. 1 v. 11, the Angels that appeared to the disciples after the Ascension stated that “this same Jesus which is taken up from you into heaven, shall so come in like manner as ye have seen Him go into heaven”. Another clear and unequivocal statement.In the list of tribes from each of which are to be sealed 12,000 it is noticeable that the Tribe of Dan is missing. The Danites were always the enterprising tribe, the colonists, the seafarers of ancient times. Bearing in mind this tribal character, it may well be the case that most of the descendants of the Tribe of Dan are already in the next world, having met with death on earth among the thousands of volunteers who were killed in the two World Wars, or as pioneers and explorers, or as any of the multitude of adventurous souls throughout past centuries. Thus there would be too few of the tribe of Dan still living on earth to make up the requisite number of 12,000.The events described in Rev. Ch. 6. vs. 12-17, would appear to be contemporaneous with the events described in Ch. 7 vs. 9-17. St. John was being shown the two sides, events on earth and the simultaneous events in Heaven. The great multitude which no man could number, whose state of bliss and happiness is so movingly described in Ch. 7. vs. 9-17, must be those who loved Christ during their earthly lives, and who are caught up to be with Him when He comes in the air, and who are thus removed from all the horrors that are to follow.The 144,000 sealed ones, are a special band, drawn from the descendants of Israel, who are later to return on earth to administer Christ’s rule. They will be taken up with all other believers, but are in a class apart.In chapter 8. v. 1, is described a period of about half an hour during which there was silence in Heaven. This may well be the actual period during which Christ is appearing in the air, for we are told in 1. Thess. Ch. 4. vs. 16-17, that the dead in Christ will be there in the clouds, and that the believers on earth shall be caught up together with them. As the Angels will be gathering all the believers from the four winds, i.e., from every part of the earth (St. Matt: Ch. 24. V. 31). Heaven will be well-nigh empty during that brief period, and silence will reign.That the Return of Christ in the air takes place during the period of the Sixth Seal, the seventh Seal being concurrent, is deduced from the statement in Rev. Ch. 6. Vs. 14-17, where it is told that after the Heaven is removed (V. 14) the great ones of the earth and every bondman and freeman cry out for the mountains and rocks to “Fall on us and hide us from the Face of Him That sitteth on the Throne and from the wrath of the Lamb; for the great day of Their wrath is come, and who is able to stand?” If some tremendous display of Divine intervention were not universally seen, those on earth who are left behind would not realise the “wrath of the Lamb” and would not cry out for protection against it.In Rev. Ch. 8. V. 2 begins the period after the believers have been taken out of the world. The state of confusion reigning in the world is horrible to contemplate, and is described in the remainder of Chapter 8 under the Sounding of the first four Trumpets. It is not possible yet to attempt to explain exactly what is indicated by these Trumpets, but it is clear that appalling devastation will occur, though whether by human or natural means is not known. A great part of the earth will be ravaged by fire, (V. 7), the sea will become contaminated (Vs. 8-9), and fresh water supplies will be rendered undrinkable (Vs. 10-11). There will also be stupendous astronomical phenomena, as described in verse 12. Then St. John hears a voice emanating from a great angel in mid­ heaven announcing three further occurrences under the heading of “Woes”, which are also the three last Trumpets.Chapter 9 opens with the sounding of the Fifth Trumpet announcing the first Woe. St. John is shown first the occurrences in the other world, then the results in this world. A star – probably indicating an Angel – falls from Heaven upon the earth, and opens the Pit of the Abyss. From hence, the nethermost Hell, rises a smoke which darkens the sun and the atmosphere, and out of the smoke come shapes described as locusts with scorpion stings. These creatures had no power to injure anything except those human beings who have not the Seal of God on their foreheads. As it has been previously deduced that all the sealed ones have by this time been gathered up into Heaven – with the exception of two, to be mentioned later – it may be understood that all human beings then on earth will suffer from the attacks of these creatures. People will not die of these attacks, but will suffer such torment that “men shall seek death, and shall in no wise find it, and they shall desire to die, and death fleeth from them”. (V. 6).Then follows a description of the venomous creatures (Vs. 7-8). It must be remembered that St. John could only describe what he saw in the language of his time, which limitation makes much of the Book of Revelation seem fantastic. But the description may well be taken to indicate aeroplanes spraying either bacteria or blister gas. The creatures had breastplates of iron and wings the sound of which was as the sound of chariots, of many horses rushing to war; a very apposite description of aeroplanes by one who had never seen or imagined such things. They are described as having “tails like unto scorpions, and stings; and in their tails is their power to hurt men”. This may well describe a spray apparatus at the rear of the fuselage. These creatures continue their attacks for five months, and are harmful only to human beings.The sounding of the Sixth Trumpet announces the Second Woe (Ch. 9. vs. 13-21). At this juncture vast armies are released at the River Euphrates. The description is of horses whose riders are equipped with “breastplates as of fire and of hyacinth and of brimstone; and the heads of the horses are as the heads of lions; and out of their mouths proceedeth fire and smoke and brimstone” (V 17). The Greek word translated “hyacinth” indicates a very dark blue-black; Homer uses the word to describe blue-black hair, and Theocritus uses it to mean true black.Bearing in mind the fact that modern mechanised warfare and its concomitant phraseology was to be unknown till close on two thousand years after St. John wrote this, it may well be taken as a very adequate description of tank attacks on a vast scale, accompanied by intensive bombardment. This invasion is to take place in the area of the River Euphrates, and may be taken to indicate the invasion of the Palestinian area by Russia. As all that area is rich in oil wells, this is a very probable development of the present situation, and the Euphrates flows right across the most direct line of attack.Chapter 10 records an experience which appears to concern St. John personally, and at present it is not possible to find any way in which it can refer to events in this world. The only hint of any connection with world events occurs in verse 11, where St. John is told “Thou must prophecy again before many peoples and nations and tongues and kings”. As it is known that St. John did not have any occasion to do this after the writing of the Book of Revelation, it may perhaps mean that before the Return of Christ to reign on earth, i.e., during the three and a half years of the final Tribulation, he may return on earth again, in the same way as Elijah did in the form of St. John the Baptist (St. Matt. Ch. 11. V.14, and Ch. 17. vs. 11-13, also St. Mark Ch. 9. Vs. 11-13). The orthodox Church does not accept the doctrine of Reincarnation, but in view of the fact that the statements with regard to St. John the Baptist were made by Christ Himself, there seems no valid reason for the Church’s attitude.It is also stated in Malachi Ch. 4. Vs. 5-6, that Elijah will be sent back on earth yet again before the great and terrible Day of the Lord. No explanation is given in Scripture for these references to the return on earth of both St. John and Elijah, and therefore any attempted explanation can be only conjectural. This point will be referred to later on.Chapters 11, 12 and 13 of Revelation, are each con­cerned with events that take place during a similar period, i.e., three and half years. This period is sometimes described as forty-two months, sometimes as one thousand two hundred and sixty days, and once (Ch. 12. V. 14), as “a time, and times, and half a time”. Taking the months as consisting of 30 days each, the two first descrip­tions work out at the same figure, but if calculations be based upon the present year of 365 days, there is a discrepancy of 17½ days. It is not possible to make any definite statement on this point, in view of the changes which have taken place in the calendar during the centuries; but it is quite clear that these three descriptions refer to the same period. Therefore all the events recorded in these three chapters must take place concurrently.The first mention of this fateful period is in chapter 11 V 2, where, after the measuring of the Temple, it is stated that the Holy City shall be trodden underfoot by the nations for forty-two months. A very great deal has been written on this subject by students all down the ages, and the general consensus of opinion seems to be that the time should be calculated upon the system of taking a day to mean a year. Many very abstruse expositions have been worked out on this basis, but it is quite as reasonable to take the statements as they stand, i.e., as referring to an actual period of three and a half years.This is the period between the Coming of Christ in the Air and His Return to reign on earth. This is the period of the Great Tribulation, spoken of by Christ in St. Mark Ch. 13. Vs. 14-37, and of which He says (V. 20) “Except the Lord had shortened the days, no flesh would have been saved.” The confusion and terror of this period cannot be imagined. In the first place the terrific demon­stration of Divine Power attendant upon the appearance of Christ in the air is quite beyond human conception. Then the sudden removal of thousands of people will cause unimaginable chaos. Those believers who may be working on heavy machinery, in charge of trains, road vehicles, shipping, aeroplanes, essential services etc., will all leave a legacy of ruin and tragedy when in a moment, in the twinkling of an eye, as St. Paul puts it, they are taken away from the world, and from whatever work they may be engaged upon. In St. Matthew Ch. 24. Vs. 40-41, Christ gives a vivid description of the suddenness and unexpectedness of His appearance.In addition to this, it must be realised that a far greater number of persons will be taken out from among those nations that are predominantly Christian than from those that have rejected all acknowledgement of God, though even among these will be found a surprising number of people who have clung to God in secret, and who will thus be eligible for the immense privilege of being called out of the world before the commencement of the Great Tribulation. This will mean that the Communist nations will be left in complete power, and they will immediately begin to put into operation all their schemes for world domination. One of their first moves will be the invasion of the Palestinian area, across the River Euphrates, as described under the Sixth Trumpet.Now follows (Ch. 11. Vs. 4-13), the strange account of the Two Witnesses. These are generally taken to represent the Old and the New Testaments, but this explanation is extremely far-fetched, and requires an immense amount of complex argument in order to make it in any way agree with the statements in this section of Revelation. As has been previously pointed out, the fulfilment of all the prophecies relating to the Life of Christ on earth, as well as those relating to the Hebrew race and to great empires of the past, can be clearly and easily recognised, without the aid of erudite and abstruse, not to say obscure, expositions by learned scholars.Thus it is far more reasonable, and far more in accord with the nature of all the other prophecies of Scripture, to take this account of the Two Witnesses at its face value, and to accept the fact that two individuals, believers in Christ, will be left on earth after all the other believers have been taken up with Christ in the air. These two will be the only remaining believers on earth during the three and a half years of the Great Tribulation, and to them will be entrusted the stupendous task of keeping the Light of God burning on earth during that period of horror and spiritual darkness. They must of necessity be mighty of spirit, and that they have been fore-ordained for this tremendous respon­sibility is made clear by the reference to them in Zechariah Ch. 4. In this chapter the prophet sees two olive trees and two candlesticks, and asks the Angel more than once for an explanation of them. The first time he asks, the Angel side-tracks any explanation by giving a message to Zerubbabel (Zech. Ch. 4. Vs. 6-11), thus making it clear that Zerubbabel is not indicated by the trees or the candlesticks. In Verse 11 the prophet repeats his question, and again in Verse 12. Thus pressed the Angel gives a deliberately ambiguous reply (V.14), saying, “These are the two sons of oil that stand by the Lord of the whole earth.” No further explanation whatever is vouchsafed, and, as it stands, the whole vision is totally incomprehensible. It might well be asked why such an enigmatic and uncorrelated vision should have been given to the prophet, and why it should have been necessary for him to place it on record. However nothing in Scripture is preserved without good reason, and the reason that this vision was given to the prophet Zechariah and recorded by him, is made clear by the repetition of the vision hundreds of years later, to St. John. The explanation that was withheld from Zechariah was given to St. John, but Zechariah had been required to record it in order to-make it clear that these Two Witnesses are extremely lofty and highly developed spirits, who have been in close proximity to the Throne of God for a very long time. They must assuredly be the very highest and most powerful servants of God in order to carry out this most exacting of all tasks that has ever been committed to human beings.To them will be given powers over the Forces of Nature comparable to those wielded by Moses and Elijah. Fire shall proceed out of their mouths which shall destroy anyone who attempts to hurt them during the term of their ministry; they shall have power to shut the heavens so that there is complete drought; they shall have power to turn water into blood, and to smite the earth with every plague as often as they shall desire. Their lot during the three and a half years of their ministry will be bitter in the extreme. They shall be clothed with sackcloth (Ch. 11. V. 3), indicative of extreme poverty; they shall incur world-wide hatred, opposition and persecution, but no one shall be able to harm them until the three and a half years is up. Then, when they shall have finished their testimony, and at the close of the period of the Great Tribulation, the Being referred to as “the beast that cometh up out of the Abyss” shall be allowed to attack, overcome, and kill them. The bodies of the Two Witnesses will be thrown out in the streets of Jerusalem (V.8) and left there unburied for three and a half days; during which time there will be great and world-wide rejoicings over their demise (V.10) for these Two Witnesses tormented them that dwell on the earth. The torments probably refer to the torment of conscience awakened among the godless by the preaching and exhortations of the Two Witnesses, as well as to the plagues, droughts etc., which they had been given the power to produce.The testimony of the Two Witnesses will be tar more immediately world-wide than the teaching of any preceding prophets of God, owing to the modern developments of radio and television, and to the enormously increased facilities and speed of transport.The words in Chapter 11. V. 9. are worthy of note, having regard to the present scheme of making Jerusalem an International Zone. The verse runs, “and from among the peoples and tribes and tongues and nations do men look upon their dead bodies three days and a half, and suffer not their dead bodies to be laid in a tomb”. This indicates that representatives from all nations will be present in Jerusalem; the use of the words “from among” makes this clear.With regard to the possible return on earth of Elijah and St. John, previously mentioned, it is possible that they may return during the three and a half days that the Two Witnesses lie dead, in order that the Light of God may not be at any time entirely extinct from the earth, and to give mankind a last and final opportunity of repentance. This is however, purely conjectural, and there is no reference to it in Scripture beyond the two prophecies in Malachi Ch. 4. Vs 5-6, and Revelation Ch. 11. V.11. Again it may be that Elijah and St. John are themselves to be the Two Witnesses, but this is not mentioned in Scripture, and does not appear to fit very convincingly with Scriptural statements.During this three and a half days the powers of evil which have been rampant in the world since the removal of all the other believers, three and a half years previously, will feel that they have finally triumphed over the Power of God, now that the Two Witnesses have at last been overpowered and killed. But the triumph of the powers of evil is destined to receive a terrifying rebuff. In the midst of the feasting and rejoicing the merry-making and exchange of congratulatory gifts over the dead bodies of the Two Witnesses, suddenly and without warning the Breath of God enters those lifeless bodies. The Two Witnesses arise and confront their adversaries, who are panic-­stricken and aghast at this fresh demonstration of the Power of God. And for their enemies, worse is to follow. A great voice is heard from Heaven saying, “Come up hither”, and before the terrified eyes of the crowds in the streets of Jerusalem, the Two Witnesses are taken up to Heaven in a cloud. In the same hour occurs a violent earthquake, and the tenth part of the city is destroyed, and seven thousand people killed.This latest demonstration of the Power of God has the effect of opening the eyes of the survivors, for it says (V. 13) “the rest were affrighted and gave glory to the God of Heaven”.The Two Witnesses, by their preaching and miraculous demonstrations, will be the means of tormenting the consciences of mankind, causing the heart-searching and misery which is always the lot of those who know the right, yet deliberately choose the wrong. Their ministry will be God’s last offer of salvation before the Return of Christ in Person and even at the eleventh hour their miraculous resurrection and assumption into Heaven will be the means of saving still more erring and misguided souls.In Chapter 12 is given an account of a series of occurrences which commence in Heaven and continue upon earth. A woman is seen, clothed with the sun, the moon under her feet, and wearing a crown of twelve stars. She gives birth to a child who is caught up to God, and thus saved from the dragon who is awaiting its birth in order to devour it. In Verse 6 it states that the woman fled to the wilderness where she was nourished during the same portentous period of time, i.e., one thousand two hundred and sixty days, which is again mentioned in Verse 14 as “a time, and times, and half a time”.It is not possible to give any explanation of this vision, though many explanations have been attempted. The two outstanding features of the vision are these:1) The period of time is the same as the period of the ministry of the Two Witnesses.2) This vision represents an occurrence which commences in the unseen world (“a great sign was seen in Heaven”) and concludes upon earth.From these two facts it may be clearly deduced that the occurrences in Chapter 12 are concurrent with the period of the Great Tribulation on earth. The great battle in Heaven (V. 7), resulting in the dragon and his followers being cast down to the earth explains the terrible outburst of wickedness in the world. All the believers, except the Two Witnesses, will have been taken out of the world; the dragon will have been cast down into the world – small wonder then that conditions on earth during that period will be so evil and sin-ridden that the Voice from Heaven exclaims (V. 13) “Woe to the earth and to the sea, because the devil is gone down into you having great wrath, knowing that he hath but a short time”.Chapter 13 gives an account of still further occurrences which take place during the same three and a half years. The beast coming up out of the sea was given authority to continue his works during forty-two months. With him is another beast which came up out of the earth, later (Ch. 19. V. 20) to be described as the False Prophet. These two receive their commission direct from the devil (Ch. 13. V. 2) “and the dragon gave him his power and his throne and great authority”, and (Verse 12) “he”, i.e., the second beast, “exerciseth all the authority of the first beast in his sight”. These two beasts are, in fact, the opposite numbers of the Two Witnesses.It is not possible to give direct explanations of the events described in Chapters 12 and 13, but the foregoing facts emerge unmistakably.If the rider on the White Horse has been correctly translated to represent Science, and to have commenced his career during the last century, it follows that the Two Witnesses, also the beast and the false prophet must be alive in the world today, though the time has not yet come for them to commence their work. They are being prepared and trained, the Two Witnesses by God, the beast and the false prophet by the devil, probably in circum­stances of complete obscurity, for the world-wide and spectacular tasks which will be laid upon them as soon as Christ has removed the believers from the world, and the three and a half years of the Great Tribulation begins.Chapter 14 opens with the triumphant Return of Christ to reign in Person on earth for a thousand years, accompanied by the 144,000 who were sealed. It is all too often taught and believed that directly this wonderful event takes place, peace and equity will be immediately established, but this is not the case. The remainder of this chapter, and all the succeeding chapters up to the end of Chapter 19 are concerned with happenings which will occur after Christ has returned to reign. His actual Return will be accompanied by a tremendous earthquake in the course of which a chasm will be formed which will split the Mount of Olives asunder from east to west, thus allowing the waters of the Mediterranean to flow through and into the Dead Sea. They will then pour down the Wadi el Araba, and down into the Gulf of Akaba, thus opening a vast new waterway and rendering obsolete the Suez Canal. It is geological fact that a fault runs right through the Mount of Olives, and even a comparatively slight earthquake would cause displacement in a north-south direction. This is described in Zechariah Chapter 14, Verses 3-11. Reference to any good physical atlas of the area will make this quite clear.The events described in Revelation Chapter 14. Verse 6 to Chapter 19. Verse 21 are still too far in the future for any explanations to be possible, though many have been attempted. It is however clear that the powers of evil will invade Palestine and will be finally overthrown at the Battle of Armageddon (Ch. 16 Vs. 12-16). They are described as the Kings that come from the Sunrising, and as the main centres of Communism are situated in that direction with regard to Palestine there would seem to be little doubt but that invasion by Communist forces is indicated. The method of their overthrow is described in Zechariah Chapter 14, Verses 12-13, and in Revelation Chapter 16 Verses 17-21. Taken in conjunction these two passages appear to describe some violent natural phenomena such as might be produced by the near approach of a comet, or some other sidereal body. Those armies which have gathered against Jerusalem shall be blasted by some force which will cause their flesh to consume away while they stand upon their feet, their eyes to Consume away in their sockets and their tongues to shrivel in their mouths. There will also be lightening, thunder and earthquakes, and great hail. These events are also described in Ezekiel Chapters 38 and 39, and in Joel Chapter 2 Verses 1-11.The 17th and 18th Chapters of Revelation deal with the fate of the Woman clothed in purple and scarlet, who was seated upon a scarlet beast with seven heads, and who epitomised all evil and villainy in the world. Speculation has run rife throughout the centuries as to the meaning of this woman and the beast. In Chapter 17 Verse 9 the seven heads of the beast are stated to represent seven mountains upon which the woman is seated, and this has led theologians and students to identify the woman “Babylon” with the Roman Catholic Church, as Rome stands upon seven hills. This theory may or may not be correct, but it would appear to savour rather strongly of the rabid Protestantism of the Reformation and post-Reformation period, and to fall within the category of “private interpretation” against which Saint Peter gives warning (2 St. Peter. Ch. 1. V. 20). The woman is described as having the words “Mystery, Babylon the great, the mother of harlots and abominations of the earth” written upon her forehead. Mystery she has been for close on two thousand years, and Mystery she must remain, until the time comes when events shall make her fully recognisable.Chapter 20 opens with the account of the complete overthrow of the powers of evil, in which state of subjugation they will continue for a thousand years. During that period Christ will reign in Person, having His seat of Government at Jerusalem. The 144,000 sealed ones will act as Administrators of the Government, and mankind will have the wonderful experience of a world-wide and united Government under principles of absolute equity and Justice. In this atmosphere of peace, arts and industries will flourish, unhampered by wars and food shortages, and restrictions. Vast irrigation schemes will see put into operation which will open up hitherto desert and uninhabitable areas (Isaiah Ch. 35. vs. 5-6, and Ch. 43. Vs. 19-20). The references to this period throughout prophetic Scriptures are far too numerous to be catalogued here, but it may be taken as a fact that all the present schemes for International Unity and Social Welfare will be developed and utilised, and will operate without the constant friction and set-backs which characterise them at present. All the multitudinous Committees and Conferences of the present time are merely creating the machinery which will later be co-ordinated and used in the Administration of Christ’s Rulership, and which will then operate smoothly and efficiently.Discoveries will develop to an undreamed-of extent, and will be devoted exclusively to the amelioration of man’s lot, and not to the arts of war and destruction as at present. Agriculture and food production will flourish, and materials now used in the manufacture of armaments will be diverted to the production of more and better agricultural implements (Isaiah Ch. 2. Vs. 2-4. and Micah Ch. 4. V. 3). Mankind will be given a wonderful demonstration of the benefits that accrue under the world domination of Christ.When the thousand years of peace and prosperity are over, we are told (Rev. Ch. 20. Vs. 7-10) that Satan will be loosed for a brief period on earth. By that time mankind will have had sufficient experience of the blessings of Christ’s Rule to be in a position to decide whether they wish to serve God or the devil. It is clear from these verses that even during the period of the Thousand Years, there will still be great numbers on earth who resent Christ’s Domination. and who are only too ready, given the smallest opportunity, to revolt and re-establish the domination of evil. The centre of disaffection will be in those areas called in Scripture Gog and Magog, which have long been identified by students as indicating Russia; and it is there that the devil will set up his seat of government. The numbers of those who rally to his banner is described as being like “the sand of the sea”. These vast armies will once more invade Palestine, and make a desperate attack upon Jerusalem. In verse 9 it is stated that they are to be overthrown by fire which “came down from God out of Heaven. and devoured them”.After this great and final overthrow the devil will be consigned to the place of punishment described (Verse 10) as the lake of fire and brimstone, whither the beast and the false prophet have already been sent. This will constitute the final annihilation of the powers of evil.The remainder of the Book of Revelation is concerned with the most brilliant and impressive descriptions of the final events in the history of the human race. Many expositions of these chapters have been, and still are being, made, but no human being is at present in a position, to expound authoritatively upon them. Everyone should read and study them for himself, for they contain the most lofty and exalted writing ever set down by human hand, and. though the meaning is not yet plain, they convey a picture unsurpassed in majesty and beauty.Before closing it may be well briefly to summarise the sequence of events as set out in this study of the Book of Revelation, always bearing in mind the fact that the authors repudiate any claim to infallibility, and have merely recorded that facet of the Truth which has been revealed to them.1) The Age of Science. which opened during the 19th century represented by the Rider on the White Horse.2) Modern Armaments, arising out of the knowledge of Science, represented by the Rider on the Red Horse.3) The system of International Finance, and Food Shortages, developed from the discoveries of Science, represented by the Rider on the Black Horse.4) Vast increase of Violent Death, arising from the develop­ments of Science, represented by the Rider on the Livid Horse.5) The Period of the Fifth Seal in which we are living at the present time, the four previous phenomena continuing concurrently. This is identified by the persecution of Christians behind the Iron Curtain. During this period the Sealing of the 144,000 takes place.6) The Coming of Christ in the Air to remove believers from the earth, accompanied by earthquakes and violent natural phenomena.7) The Period of the three and a half years of The Great Tribulation, and the ministry of the Two Witnesses and of the Beast and the False Prophet.8) The Return of Christ in Person to reign on earth for 1,000 years.9) The release of the devil for a short period on earth.10) The final overthrow of the Powers of Evil.11) The Last Judgement.12) The New Heaven and New Earth.“And He saith unto me, ‘Seal not up the words of the prophecy of this book; for the time is at hand. . . Behold I come quickly; and My reward is with Me, to render to each man according as his work is.’ I testify unto every man that heareth the words of the prophecy of this book. If any man shall add unto them, God shall add unto him the plagues which are written in this book; and if any man shall take away from the words of the book of this prophecy, God shall takeaway his part from the tree of Life, and out of the Holy City, which are written in this book. He which testifieth these things saith, ‘Yea; I come quickly’. Amen, come, Lord Jesus.”

MEDICINE AND MYTH

MEDICINE AND MYTH

Presidential Address

Given to the Worthing Archaeological Society

by Frances Ann Roper. 12th January, 1954.


The Art of the Physician is a far older thing than the art of the Surgeon. The ancients could, and did, perform many remarkable surgical operations, as can be seen by the trephined skulls dating as far back as early Egyptian times, and the Early Bronze Age in Britain. But surgery could never be anything more than a drastic treatment, only to be adopted as a last resort, until the discovery of Anaesthetics and Antiseptics only about one hundred years ago. All operations had to be performed while the patient was fully conscious, unless Nature's own merciful anaesthetic of fainting, came to his aid. Even if the patient survived the shock of the operation, in a vast percentage of cases he died subsequently through infection of the wound, and gangrene. It is only very recently in the history of the human race that surgery has been able to develop into the amazing science that it is today.Medicine, on the other hand, has a history as old as mankind. From the earliest times the Art of the Physician has always been closely associated with religious beliefs, and held in the utmost veneration. For centuries it was known as The Art, and to this day a prescription will sometimes have the letters “s.a.” written at the end. These stand for the words “secundum artem”, i.e., “According to The Art”, and mean that the doctor leaves the compounding of the preparation to the pharmacist, to be made up by him in accordance with the recognized methods.The earliest records of medicine date from the Sumerian Civilisation, which has been revealed of recent years by excavations on the site of the ancient city of Ur. The Sumerians were a highly civilised people, and there can be no doubt that a Medical profession existed, as clay tablets have been discovered which have a bearing on Medicine, and a seal of a Sumerian physician who lived about 3,000 B.C. is now in the Wellcome Museum. The Sumerian civilisation was overthrown by the Babylonians in about 2,000 B.C., and the centre of culture then passed to Babylon, or Chaldea, as it is called in the Old Testament.Prayer of Assyrian Physician to Ea, or Oannes, the deity known as “Lord of the Deep”, from an Assyrian Tablet dating from about 2,500 B.C. It reads as follows:“0, Ea, King of the Deep, seeI am the Magician, am thy slave.March thou on my right hand,Assist me on my left,Add thy pure spell to mine;Vouchsafe to me pure wordsMake fortunate the utterances of my mouth,Ordain that my decisions be happy,Let me be blest where’re I tread,Let the man whom I now touch be blessed."The Babylonians appear to have had a well-organised medical profession. One of the earliest Kings was named Hammurabi, and to him we owe the most ancient Code of laws in existence. Hammurabi lived about 1948 - 1905 B.C., and among many other subjects, his Code mentions laws relating to medical practice. One of the statements in the Code says:“If the doctor shall treat a gentleman and shall open an abscess with a bronze knife, and shall preserve the eye of the patient, he shall receive ten shekels of silver. If the patient is a slave, his master shall pay two shekels of silver.”But it goes on to state that –“if the doctor shall open an abscess with a bronze knife and shall kill the patient, or shall destroy the sight of the eye, hiss hands shall be cut off.”In the case of a slave the doctor is not sp heavily penalized:"He shall replace the slave with another slave.”The Babylonians were the first people to name the Signs of the Zodiac, also the nearer Planets, and as these had an immensely powerful bearing on the Art of Medicine, continuing right down to about three hundred years ago, it will be helpful to give a brief outline of their beliefs, which developed into the great art of Astrology.From the beginning of human history down to the time of Copernicus and Galileo, in the 16th Century, it was unquestioningly believed that the earth was the centre of the universe, and that the I sun, moon and planets revolved round it. The early astronomers of Babylon believed that the sun followed a path which passed through twelve constellations in the course of a year. These constellations I were named as follows:­AriesThe RamLibraThe ScalesTaurusThe bullScorpioScorpionGeminiThe TwinsSagittariusThe ArcherCancerThe CrabCapricornusThe GoatLeoThe LionAquariusThe Water-carrierVirgoThe VirginPiscesThe FishesThe year began in March, at the spring equinox, when the sun entered the constellation Aries. The name Zodiac is derived from the same root as the Greek word ζwσύ an animal. The seven recognised, planets were the Sun, the Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn.The sign of the Zodiac, and the planet which was in the ascendancy at the time of a person’s birth were believed to have a profound influence upon his character and fate. It was the custom for many centuries that all important persons should have their horoscopes cast, and these horoscopes were most carefully preserved, usually in the temples, so that the individuals could refer to them for guidance throughout their life.The practice of Astrology was very widespread, and prevailed throughout all the ancient civilisations of the East from the very dawn of history. It is known in countries as widely separated as Babylon, Egypt, India and China, and passed from Babylon and Egypt to Greece, Rome, and westwards through Europe to Britain. So strongly was it established that in later times the planets were believed to have an affinity with plants and herbs and precious stones. In this way arose the system of medicine which prevailed almost unchanged down to the 17th century in England, and which still persists in strange folk-memories in country districts today. In a debased and garbled form Astrology still exists, as may be seen from the columns of many popular papers; it also exists in “lucky birth stones” and the charms and brooches, bearing the signs of the Zodiac, or their pictorial equivalent, which can be purchased at most stores.It must be borne in mind that Astrology was an extremely serious science to the ancient peoples, and though today their system of Medicine is completely discredited, it held absolute sway over the greatest minds in the world for over four thousand years. It is not for us to jeer at them.The Babylonians, or Chaldeans, were so famous for their powers of Astrology, that they held great authority in other nations, and were well known in Egypt and highly respected at the courts of the Pharaohs. From the Babylonians the knowledge passed to the Egyptians and was welded on their own theology.Thoth, the Egyptian god of wisdom, represented with the head of an ibis, is said to have been the author of treatises on medicine. He is believed to have written thirty-two books, known as the Hermetic Books, of which six dealt with medicine. These books were kept in the temples for reference, and carried in processions, and regarded with the utmost veneration. All are now lost, but all the surviving Egyptian medical literature appears to have been compiled from these lost Hermetic Books. They were so highly esteemed that no physician was blamed for a patient's death as long as he had adhered strictly to their teachings. If, however, the physician departed in the slightest degree from those teachings, and the patient died, the physician's own life was forfeited.The Ebers papyrus is the best known of medical papyri. It was found in a tomb at Thebes in 1862 by Professor Georg Ebers, and is the oldest complete medical book in existence. It is also believed to be the oldest existing book of any kind. It consists of 110 pages, and contains about 900 recipes or prescriptions. As it is in almost perfect condition, and has a calendar written at the back of the M.S. the date of its writing may be fairly accurately fixed at about 1,500 B.C. There are marginal notes made by its original owner, such as“Good. I have often used it,” or ".An excellent remedy". The directions for use were to repeat while taking the mixture such words as "Welcome, remedy! Welcome! that dost drive away that which is in this my heart and in these my limbs". Castor oil and hartshorn are two drugs mentioned in the Ebers papyrus which are still in use today.Horus was the Egyptian god of health. While engaged in a fight with Set, the god of evil, Horus lost an eye, which was restored by miraculous means. Representations of the Eye of Horus came to be regarded as the most potent of amulets, and is believed to be the original of the PX which appears at the top of all prescriptions down to the present day. In Roman times this amulet came to be merged with the sign of Jupiter . Still later it came to be understood as the initial letter of the word "Recipe" meaning "Take thou", being directions to the compounder of the following mixture. The "R" however, always has a line through the tail, and it is strange to think that the National Health Service is unwittingly invoking the aid of Horus and Jupiter by printing the PX at the head of their official prescription forms.The earliest physician whose name is known is Sekhet'enanach who was chief physician to one of the Pharaohs about 3,000 B.C. All that is known of him is that "he healed the King's nostrils" The second name, and one much better known, is that of Im-Hotep, which means, "he who cometh in peace." He flourished about 2,980 B.C. and was a famous politician and architect, as well as physician. He was the architect and designer of the Step Pyramid of Sakkarah. Little is known of Im-Hotep as physician, but he must have been very distinguished, for he was worshipped for many centuries after his death as the god of medicine. In later centuries he was identified by the Greeks with their own god AEsculapius.The torch of Medicine now passes to Greece. AEsculapius is believed to have had two daughters, Hygeia and Panacea. Hygeia became the goddess of Health, and her name is still remembered in our word "hygiene". The name of Panacea is still used to indicate any preparation which is believed to cure all ills.Serpents have always been connected with the Art of Medicine, and there is a vast amount of literature dealing with the cult of the Serpent. The most obvious reason for the ancient belief is that the serpent casts its skin, and reappears apparently rejuvenated. This led to the belief that serpents had the power of renewing their youth and health, and from the most ancient times they have been looked upon as the symbol of healing. A gold and ivory statuette of a Minoan Priestess holding two serpents, has been found, dating from an extremely early period. Serpents came to be connected with this name AEsculapius, and still appears in the badge of the Royal Army Medical Core.In the year 460 B.C. in the little island of Cos near the coast of Asia Minor, was born one of the greatest men the world has ever known - Hippocrates, the Father of Medicine. He is said to have been a direct descendant of AEscupapius.Until the time of Hippocrates the study of Medicine had been entirely empirical, and without any scientific basis whatever. All sickness and disease was believed to be the work of devils or malevolent gods, for many centuries had yet to pass before the discovery of germs. All treatments were strictly in accordance with the accepted codes, and the nature of the diseases was not studied at all. Many of the standard treatments were determined by the study of the stars and their corresponding herbs. Hippocrates however, originated an entirely different school of thought. He based his teachings upon careful and intensive study of the patient, and set a high standard for all who wished to follow what he called The Art. He set the pattern of ethical conduct, insistence on prognosis, accuracy of observation and clarity in recording of cases which has remained unsurpassed to this day. He wrote many works on the Art of Medicine, some of which were used. as textbooks till the beginning of the nineteenth century. His famous "Aphorisms" or short definitions and advice to students, are as true and fresh today as when he wrote them nearly two thousand years ago. The famous Oath of Hippocrates has been adopted as a pattern by medical men throughout the ages, and in one form or another has been taken by thousands of doctors when achieving their qualification. In this noble code of ethics the student is shown the dignity and responsibility of his calling, and there is urged upon him the duty of respect to his school or university, of making any new discovery freely available, of 'maintaining professional secrecy and refraining from gossip, and of taking no mean advantage of the position of medical advisor. Upon this has been based the high standards which have characterised the medical profession to this day.Extracts from one of the renderings of The Oath of Hippocrates"I swear by Apollo the Physician, by AEsculapius, by Hygeia,by Panacea, and by all the gods and goddesses, making them my witnesses, that I will carry out according to my ability and judgement, this oath and this indenture. . . . . . I will use treatment to help the sick according to my ability and judgement, but never with a view to injury and wrongdoing. Neither will I administer a poison to anybody when asked to do so, nor will I suggest such a course. . . . . But I will keep pure and holy both my life and my art. Into whatsoever houses I enter, I will enter to help the sick, and I will abstain from all wrongdoing and harm, especially from abusing the bodies of man or woman, bond or free. And whatsoever I shall hear in the course of my profession, as well as outside my profession in my intercourse with men, if it be what should not be published abroad, I will never divulge, holding such things to be holy secrets. Now if I carry out this oath and break it not, may I gain for ever reputation among all men for my life and for my art; but if I transgress it and forswear myself, may the opposite befall me."Extracts from the "Precepts of Hippocrates."“I urge you not to be too grasping, but to consider carefully your patient's means. Sometimes give your services for nothing… and if there be an opportunity of serving one who is a stranger in financial straits, give full assistance to all such. For where there is the love of man, there is also love of the art.”Hippocrates has made little use of drugs. His method was to watch the course of the disease and to assist nature’s own power of recuperation. Unlike the vast majority of early medical writers he had the wisdom and humility to record his failures as well as his successes, and so well and accurately did he record his cases that the diseases are easily recognizable today. Cases of malaria, meningitis, and the laboured breathing known as Cheyne-Stokes respiration can be recognized among others. Hippocrates lived to a great age, and is believed to have died in 355 B.C.If the medical world had followed and developed the wide and sane teachings of Hippocrates, knowledge would have advanced far more rapidly than it did, and thousands of sufferers throughout the centuries would have been spared untold miseries. But Hippocrates lived before his time, and his teachings were far too advanced for the world in its then state. After his death the medical world quickly relapsed into the old condition of superstition and magical beliefs, and wildly inaccurate guess-work from which Hippocrates had done so much to raise it.As the Grecian Culture declined, so the Roman culture arose. Great Medical Schools were founded in various places, the most famous of which was at Alexandria. There were many teachers of medicine during the next four and a half centuries, but after Hippocrates the man who left the greatest mark on the world of medicine was Galen. He was born in Asia Minor in 131 A.D. and studied at Alexandria. He was a very different type from Hippocrates, and it is mainly due to his self-opinionated and didactic temperament and methods of teaching, that he attained the enormous influence which he wielded throughout the medical world for the next 1,300 years. Galen was extremely active and contentious, and though he had no definite followers nor did he establish any school, his reputation during his lifetime was prodigious, and he left a voluminous collection of writings. On his death in 200 A.D. all active research ceased absolutely. A black curtain descends upon the world of medicine, the great Library of Alexandria was destroyed, the Dark Ages of Medicine began, and the works and teachings of Galen became fossilised and venerated, till they loomed over the minds of men as a lowering monolith, which none might question on pain of death. To this day certain standard preparations are still known as “Galenicals”.During the succeeding centuries the teachings of Galen became more and more overgrown with superstition and myth. The ancient beliefs of Astrology reared their heads once more, till at last by the beginning of the fourteenth century the Medical world was in a state of chaos. During those dark centuries the only points of light in the western world were the Monasteries and other Church Institutions. The monks became considerably skilled in the use of herbs and simple remedies, and grew many of the medicinal plants in the Monastic gardens. These medicinal herbs and plants are still found growing wild on the sites and among the ruins of ancient Abbeys and Monasteries. Belladonna has been found in the ruins of Kinross Abbey, and at Valle Crusis Abbey, Llangollen. Henbane and Datura Stramonium have also been found quite recently, and are obviously the descendants of the medicinal herb gardens of the monks.Numbers of the herbal drugs used by the Mediaeval physician are still in use. The common fox-glove, broom, dandelion, monkshood (aconite), chamomile, peppermint, horseradish, belladonna, colchicum (autumn crocus), hyoscyamus (henbane), fern root, witch hazel, linseed, are all indigenous plants which have been used for centuries, and are still in use today. Some are falling out of use due to the discovery of new synthetic drugs, but many are in common use and have no substitutes.One of the strange beliefs which came down from very early times was that of the “Doctrine of Signatures”. Briefly this meant that certain signs, forms and shapes existed in plants and animals which indicated their powers and virtues in the healing of diseases. It was an ingenious system for discovering from certain marks and appearances in the various portions of a plant's structure, the medicinal properties it possessed. It is probable that this doctrine was evolved from the curious resemblances to be observed between the leaves, flowers and roots of certain plants and various parts of the human body. The most potent plant in this category was considered in ancient times to be the mandrake, on account of the bifurcated root, which bears some resemblance to the human body. Many superstitions arose concerning the mandrake, it was believed to be so nearly human that it screamed when pulled out of the ground, and the person who pulled it up was in great danger of insanity or even death. The mandrake does actually contain a certain amount of a known poison (probably Scopolamine) and it induced hallucinations and temporary mental derangement. In order to obtain the root, and yet to escape the dangers attendant upon actually pulling it up, the ingenious method was devised by which a dog was tied to the loosened root, so that the attendant disasters should fall upon the dog, and not upon the person concerned. The Herbarium of Apuleius (5th cent. A.D.) gives the following directions for gathering Mandrake: ­“When thou seest its hands and its feet, then tie thou it up. Take the other end and. tie it to a dog’s neck, so that the hound be hungry; next cast meat before him, so that he may not reach it, except he jerk up the wort with him.”.There are many Mediaeval illustrations showing a dog tethered to the mandrake root.Shakespeare often refers to mandragora and its effects.“Give me to drink mandragora. . .That I might sleep out this great gap of time my Antony is away”.(Antony and Cleopatra I v.4.)“And shrieks like mandrakes torn out of the earththat living mortals hearing them, run mad.”(Romeo and .Juliet IV iii. 47).The plant cyclamen was used for ear complaints, because the leaf resembles the human ear. Spotted plants were administered to cure spots, and scaly plants to remove scaly disorders of the skin. The little blue speedwell, which resembles a bright blue eye, was also known as “eye-bright” and was used for disorders of the eyes. The flowers of the Canterbury bell, which look like an open throat, were used for bronchitis. The list may be continued to a great length, but it is safe to say that every plant which has a common name which includes some part of the body, such as liver-wart, lung-wort, hound’s-­tongue, hart’s-tongue etc., was used in ancient times for the part of the body named.Another strange belief was that of Healing by Sympathy. It appears by present standards to be a most wild and fantastic theory, but it was widely held and accredited even down to the seventeenth century, and advocated by intellectual people such as Sir Kenelm Digby and Madame de Sevigne, among many others. The basis of the idea was that certain ills of the body, chiefly wounds, could be cured by applying the remedy to the object which caused the injury, and not to the injury itself. Thus if a person were wounded by a dagger, the dagger was bound up with unguents and drugs, while the actual wound was merely treated by being washed and wrapped up in clean linen. The cures which were attributed to this treatment obviously had nothing to do with the drugs used, but it was an excellent method of treatment in as far as the wound was kept clean and left to Nature, without the application of the weird, and often appalling, medicaments of the time, which almost invariably did far more harm than good.Among the many strange beliefs which arose during the long period of darkness and superstition, one of the strongest was that of “Touching for the King’s Evil”. Early chroniclers declare that the healing touch was a prerogative peculiar to the sovereigns of England. The first records are by William of Malmesbury, who states that Edward the Confessor (1042-1066) was the first ruler to practice it, and the power descended by hereditary right to all succeeding sovereigns. The power was believed to be vested in one of the jewels in Edward the Confessor’s Crown, and to pass to each successive rightful wearer. The disease with which the healing was chiefly associated was Scrofula, which was very common in England from the Middle Ages down to the seventeenth century, and was mainly due to malnutrition. This came to be known as “The King’s Evil”. The power of healing was the sole right of the English sovereigns, though certain of the French Kings claimed the right, which gave rise to bitter controversy in former times. English chroniclers maintained that the French Kings only derived their power from their alliance to the English Royal line, though the French Kings continued to exercise the rite down to 1776.A special form of religious service was instituted in the reign of Henry VII and was included in the English Prayer Book till 1719. Queen Elizabeth I disliked the practice, but she is reputed to have touched a great number of people. The Stuart sovereigns practised the healing touch, and Charles I is said by contemporary writers to have excelled all his predecessors in the exercise of the Divine gift. After the Restoration, multitudes of people flocked to London to be healed by the Royal Touch, and Charles II was indefatigable in his performance of the rite. This may have been due to the suspension of the rite during the commonwealth, although it is stated by a contemporary writer that “that method had been tried by the late usurper Cromwell, but without success”.Charles II touched several thousands of suffers every year, and in 1682 he preformed the rite on 8,500 people. Registers were kept of every person who had been touched, and the whole thing became a well-organised public ceremony. Between the years 1660 to 1664 the total of persons touched was 23,601, and from 1667 to 1684 the numbers had increased to 68,506. So great was the increase in the number of applicants that metal tokens of copper or brass were issued by way of “tickets”, and when applying for these tokens the patients had to produce certificates signed and sealed by their ministers or church­-wardens, declaring that they had never previously been touched by the King. The performance of the ceremony was preceded by a Royal Proclamation, and usually took place on Good Friday, at the Palace of Westminster. The two great diarists, Pepys and Evelyn, both mention the ceremony, and give careful and interesting descriptions. It would seem that history has made a great deal of the faults of Charles 11, and not enough of his kind-heartedness and obvious sympathy with his suffering subjects, for it must have been an extremely unpleasant matter for the sovereign to have to touch the loathsome sores which were presented to him in such numbers. It is also recorded by the great contemporary scholar, Elias Ashmole, that“a man named Evans, who was in such a loathsome condition that none could be found willing to recommend him for a certificate, placed himself in St. James’ Park where he knew the King walked. Upon his approach he fell on his knees exclaiming, ‘God bless your Majesty’. Whereupon the King gave him his hand to kiss, upon which Evans availed himself of the opportunity to apply it to his dreadfully ulcerated nose, which from that time improved and ultimately recovered.”William of Orange considered the rite a “silly superstition” and could only be persuaded to perform the ceremony once, when he remarked to the patients “God give you better health and more sense.” Queen Anne revived the practice, and performed the rite in London and Oxford. One of those touched by her was Samuel Johnson when about two or three years of age. The original token, or touch-piece given to him by the Queen is now in the British Museum. The Hanoverian monarchs discontinued the ancient rite, though the Young Pretender Charles Edward, and his brother, the Cardinal of York, both continued it, and special silver touch-pieces were struck for them.Another strange power with which British Sovereigns were accredited was that of Hallowing the Rings. From the earliest times rings of all kinds have been used as amulets for the cure of all kinds of diseases, but those hallowed by British Monarchs were believed to be particularly efficacious against Cramp and Epilepsy. These rings were made of any kind of metal not necessarily of gold though many which were hallowed for foreign rulers or wealthy persons were of gold or silver. The majority were of iron, lead or bronze, and rings made of nails from coffins that had been buried and exhumed, were considered particularly potent. The earliest record of a British monarch hallowing Cramp rings is of Edward II (1307-1327), and there are many records thereafter down to the 16th century. The Hallowing of the Rings was a very solemn ceremony, conducted with-a set form of Prayer. The rings to be hallowed were placed in dishes before the Crucifix, and the sovereign consecrated them by passing them to and fro between his hands, so that the Royal Virtue might impregnate them. These consecrated rings were in very great demand in all countries, for though the French kings claimed the power of Touching, no person in the world was credited with the power of Hallowing the Rings other than the reigning Sovereign of England. Very few of these Cramp Rings are now in existence, though there are frequent allusions to them in chronicles and records from widely separated sources.Jewels and precious stones have always ranked very nigh among the objects employed for their believed powers of healing. Each of the planets was believed to rule and influence its own precious stones in the same way that it influenced its own plants. Good spirits were supposed to reside in certain stones and to exert their beneficent powers upon the wearer. Jewels were frequently worn as amulets, and were also powdered and given internally as medicines. The wide­-spread belief during the Middle Ages in the healing powers and curative action of precious stones is shown in the medical formularies and Pharmacopoeias of the period, many of which continued in use till as recently as 1798. A compound called “Hungary Powder” of that period was renowned as a remedy for smallpox and measles, and was given in doses of 20-30 grains. Among a number of other ingredients it contained powdered emeralds, rubies, sapphires, jacinths, pearls, red and white coral, and gold leaf. The great cost of the gems used in these compounds led naturally to the apothecaries substituting artificial stones for genuine ones, so during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries these costly ingredients gradually went out of use. The belief that toads carried a jewel in their heads is a very ancient one, but its origin is lost in myth and legend. The “jewel” was believed to have immense therapeutic value for all kinds of ailments, and the method of obtaining it from the living toad is carefully recorded. It was necessary to get an old, male toad, and place it on a piece of scarlet material. This colour so pleased the toad, that it would stretch itself out, wriggling with delight, and open its mouth and eject the jewel. It was, however, very important that the observer should watch the toad very closely, as directly it had ejected the jewel, it would appear to realise the enormity of its action, and, unless the jewel were snatched away immediately, the toad would at once “sup it up” again, and refuse ever after to relinquish it.The influence of the Renaissance was as potent in the world of Medicine as in every other sphere of life, but it was very largely due to the activities of that strange, paradoxical, yet brilliant and original thinker, Philippus Aureolus Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, self-styled Paracelsus (1490-1541) that the centuries-old bondage of Galen began to break. The Medical world had become ossified and petrified, bound down and shackled under a mountainous and stifling welter of theory and legend, whose foundation was the immutable teaching of Galen. Paracelsus whirled into the hidebound theorists of his period like a tornado, and naturally drew down upon his head all the weight of disapproval and denunciation of which they were capable. He needed every ounce of his natural self-confidence and braggadocio to withstand the furious onslaughts of the established members of the profession. For many years Paracelsus has been decried as a charlatan, a mere drunken quack, and a disreputable braggart, and it is quite probable that he fully merited those terms. But it is only of recent years that students have begun to appraise him at his real worth. He was a born Iconoclast, and the whole subsequent development of the Medical Profession is deeply indebted to him for his brilliant work in blazing the trail which has led to the marvels of modern Medical knowledge.With Paracelsus and the Renaissance the structure of modern Medicine can be said to have begun. In following the trail so violently blazed by Paracelsus, Medicine has found that the trail leads back unerringly to that greatest of all Physicians, Hippocrates. With the advance of modern Medicine Hippocrates has, after nearly 2,500 years, at last come into his own. His precepts are as true and fresh today as they were when he first taught them, and his is the abiding and underlying spirit which imbues and irradiates the whole profession, however encrusted it may become with technicalities, or dehumanised by the Welfare State.The old mediaeval beliefs died hard, and even today many queer beliefs still linger as mere whispers of folk memories in out-of-the-way districts. Many of the names of drugs and preparations in the British Pharmacopoeia are still traceable to those early times, and many others still crop up in common parlance, frequently to the headache and annoyance of the youthful pharmacist. Certain popular items may have as many as three or four different names, apart from their official name, and the names may vary in different parts of the country. But despite the inconvenience to the trained professional, these names are of the very stuff and substance of our history, and to those who have eyes to see and ears to hear, they echo back to those far-off days when the Art of the Physician was indeed a mystery, and inspired by God.